Environmental resources

Environmental resources

The trafficking of environmental resources is a key challenge for some developing countries. Many emerging economies are based on exporting raw materials, but under-resourced governments may lack the capacity to regulate the exploitation of these assets.

Rather than promoting economic progress, poorly managed natural wealth can become a cause of bad governance, corruption or even violent conflict. The best documented instances involve mineral resources, such as oil, diamonds, gold or other valuable metals and ores. But biologic resources are also vulnerable, and their misappropriation and trafficking is an important form of transnational organized crime.

These issues are inherently international, because all countries share a global ecosystem. The release of chlorofluorocarbons anywhere in the world affects the common ozone layer. Toxic waste dumping at sea damages a common and essential global resource. Elimination of plant and animal species irrevocably destroys part of our joint environmental heritage. Further, many of the consumer markets for these forms of contraband are situated in another part of the world than the supply. Trans-shipment often involves third countries, and thus the problem is beyond the scope of any national power to address.

In addition to an inherent tension between development and environmental protection, some countries lack the capacity to police vast tracts of wilderness. Poverty and instability mean that officials may be easier to corrupt. Borders, especially wild borders, may have very few controls. Rural populations may have few sustenance alternatives to what they can harvest from their natural environment. Most importantly, corruption can undermine even the best designed regulatory system.

There are many forms of transnational organized environmental crime, and as global regulations grow, new forms will emerge. Classically, there are two major subheadings under which these offences fall. One is crime related to pollution, in particular hazardous waste dumping and the trade in ozone depleting substances. The second is crimes related to illicit harvesting of natural resources, in particular threatened animal species, timber and fish. This article focuses on two important instances of environmental resource theft and trafficking: the trafficking of endangered species from Africa and South-East Asia to Asia as a whole, and the trafficking of timber from South-East Asia to Europe and Asia.

Wildlife from Africa and South-East Asia to Asia

Term "Wildlife and forest" refers to all fauna and flora, including animals, birds and fish, as well as timber and non-timber forest products. "Wildlife and forest crime" refers to the taking, trading (supplying, selling or trafficking), importing, exporting, processing, possessing, obtaining and consumption of wild fauna and flora, including timber and other forest products, in contravention of national or international law. Broadly speaking, wildlife and forest crime is the illegal exploitation of the world's wild flora and fauna. Once an emerging threat, wildlife and forest crime today has transformed into one of the largest transnational organized criminal activities alongside drug trafficking, arms, and trafficking in human beings. Criminal groups are using the same routes and techniques for wildlife trafficking as for smuggling of other illicit commodities, exploiting gaps in national law enforcement and criminal justice systems. The billions of dollars generated by this illegal business are being used to further nefarious ends. In some cases money goes to financing terrorism and contributing to instability. These crimes are also closely interlinked with money-laundering, corruption, murder and extreme violence.

 

Both regions (Africa and South-East Asia) face serious challenges to environmental protection, including a lack of effectively managed resources for law enforcement, few alternative livelihoods for rural people, long hunting traditions, periodic insurgencies and conflicts, weak border enforcement, and some enforcement officials who may find the economic potential of this market more attractive than their salary. These problems are not unique to these regions, but, unfortunately, the wildlife species are. The first step in the trafficking chain is poaching. Well-organized groups have been documented, and it is clear that some have turned environmental exploitation into a business. Not all players in the market are full-time professionals, and some of those sourcing wildlife products may be informal participants. In Africa, every state with a wildlife population is affected by poaching, but it appears that Central Africa is the main source of elephant ivory, and Southern Africa the main source of rhino horn. Some of these products are retailed to tourists locally, but very large consignments of ivory have been detected en route to Asia, representing larger organizations. There is evidence of militants being involved in the trade, including Somali and Sudanese groups. In South-East Asia, a much wider variety of smaller wildlife is harvested, but the volumes are staggering, and the environmental implications less well understood. One large species, the tiger, is on the verge of being poached into extinction in the wild. Border crossings are frequently made at points controlled by insurgent groups. Between 5,000 and 12,000 African elephants are killed every year to supply the market with between 50 and 120 tons of ivory annually – data from 2010. The East Asian ivory market appears to be worth about US$62 million per year. While seizures are smaller, rhino horn is worth far more than elephant ivory per kilogram. About 800 kilograms has entered the market in recent years, worth just over US$8 million per year. Tiger parts continue to fetch high prices, but have become so scarce that if as much as 5% of the remaining tiger population were poached, this market would be worth less than US$5 million per year.

The lands of sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia are home to a large share of the world’s endangered large mammal species.

Africa’s wildlife population, including many large mammal species, is part of what makes the continent unique. It is the basis for a tourist trade that comprises a key part of many national economies. But widespread poverty and conflict have left this population exposed to poaching, and exotic animal products command high prices due to strong global demand, especially from Asia.

Demand in Asia for Asian species is rooted in tradition, and Africa hosts species of many of these same animals, such as rhinoceros and elephant. Some feature in local cuisine, some are valued in traditional medicine, while others are prized for their decorative value and are regarded as status symbols. As habitats shrink and human populations grow, the demands placed on these resources multiply. As species become more scarce, some of their parts are worth more than their weight in gold. Despite the efforts of many dedicated rangers, in some areas these precious commodities are essentially free for the taking.

Enforcement efforts are hampered by the parallel licit trade in wild animals. Hunting for “bush meat”, as well as for trophies and commercial gain, is legal and common in many countries. Wildlife markets are found throughout Asia, and wild species are available in many specialty restaurants. Few openly sell endangered species, but these may often be acquired in backroom transactions; those with the networks to source legally culled wildlife can also access banned products. Many endangered species closely resemble more common ones, and it may take an expert to distinguish between them, especially when they have been butchered or processed.

How is the trafficking conducted?

The first step in the trafficking chain is poaching. Well-organized groups have been documented, and it is clear that some have turned environmental exploitation into a business. Not all players in the market are full-time professionals, however, and some of those sourcing wildlife products may be informal participants. Hunting remains a form of livelihood for communities in both Africa and Asia. Even if cashing in meant a long trek to a regional selling point, such a kill would represent one of the few opportunities for income in families otherwise focused on subsistence. Poachers may also approach local hunters with an offer to buy the wildlife products desired.

The concentration of endangered species in game parks may make the professional poache`s job easier. If they are able to corrupt game wardens, they can secure access to a steady stream of welltracked and healthy animals. Every year, the nationalparks of Africa and Asia report thousands of cases of poaching. It is unclear how many of these cases involve the collaboration of rangers. Once poached, the animal may be butchered for particular parts, or the whole carcass transported for further processing. Other species are captured and trafficked alive, to be used as pets, food, or medicine, though many die on the journey. The traffickers may be a completely different group of people than the poachers, acting as brokers with contacts in both source and destination countries.

Every state in Africa with a wildlife population is affected by poaching, but some much more so than others. Governance seems to be an especially important factor in determining whether or not heavy poaching occurs. It appears that Central Africa is the main source of elephant ivory and Southern Africa the main source of rhino horn.

Once the desired parts are removed, they may be transported and processed further in Africa before being shipped abroad. A number of African countries have been identified as carving sites for elephant ivory, for example. Some products are also moved north to the Middle East. While Yemen is a key destination for rhino horn, it is unclear how much of this flow is consumed locally and how much is for onward shipment to Asia.

Small players may be important in sourcing ivory and rhino horn in some areas, but they also play a role in trafficking it internationally. Africa serves as a retail centre for animal parts, with individual buyers from Asia transporting small items home in their luggage. Large volumes of ivory items destined for the Far East are recovere (chopsticks, cigarette holders and signature seals). What share of these items are bought for personal use and what share resold for profit in Asia remains unclear.

Endangered species parts are often concealed in legitimate cargo, taking advantage of the growing trade between Africa and Asia. Ivory has been seized hidden in shipments of plastic waste, dried fish, stone statues, precious stones and timber. Many of the largest shipments detected have been hidden in containerized cargo, often originating in the Tanzania, but air cargo has also been used.

From Africa, the contraband takes a number of routes to Asia. Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam increased in prominence as transit countries for elephant ivory – data from 2010. For rhino horn, China, Vietnam and Thailand have been identified as both transit and consumer areas, along with Singapore, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia (excluding Sarawak), Brunei Darussalam and Macao, China.

Wildlife from Africa and South-East Asia to Asia:

Source: Elephants from Central Africa, rhinoceros from South Africa, Zimbabwe and north-east India, various wildlife from Myanmar, Cambodia and the Laos.

Vector: By sea and air from Africa, by land and sea within Asia

Destination: China (including Taiwan and Hong Kong), Vietnam, Japan and other parts of Asia.

Dimensions:

Annual market volume – data from 2010: elephant ivory – 75 tons

Rhino horn: 800 kilograms

Tiger parts – perhaps 150 tiger skins and about 1500 kilograms of tiger bones.

Annual value at destination: elephant ivory – US$62 million

Rhino horn – US$8 million

Tiger parts – US$5 million

Traffickers:

Groups involved: Asian expatriate communities in Africa and Asia

Elephant ivory: Militias, rural Africans, businesspeople in Asia and Africa

Rhino horn: Organized poaching gangs

Residence of traffickers: Poachers in source countries, wholesalers in Asia and Africa, retailers in Asia and Africa

Threat:

Estimated trend: Elephant ivory: increasing in some areas

Rhino horn: sharply increasing

Potential effects: Tigers and black rhinos may become extinct in the world; impact on South-East Asian wildlife unclear. Promotion of corruption and organized crime.

Likelihood of effects being realized: For tigers – high; black rhinos - fair

Asia's Wildlife

The poaching of large mammals in Africa receives considerable attention, but species in Asia are also under threat. There are only an estimated 3,200 tigers remaining in the wild, and the skin and bones command high prices. While high value large mammals garner much sympathy, many other wild species are harvested in South-East Asia for traditional medicine, food and decor products, as well as being captured for the pet trade. In terms of volume and market value, this trade dwarfs that of the larger species, and much less is known about its long-term sustainability.

Asia serves as source, transit, and/or destination for a large share of the endangered animals poached in the world. Some products are sourced and consumed in the same country, but, for economic reasons, most are trafficked transnationally. Myanmar, which still contains extensive forested areas, is the main source country, but the Laos and Cambodia are also affected. Myanmar is also the primary country used to smuggle South-East Asian wildlife into China, the single largest consumer, while wildlife from Cambodia and the Laos are principally smuggled into Vietnam, another major destination market. Thailand serves as a transit country and a retail centre for buyers throughout the region. Japan and the Republic of Korea are also destination markets for certain products.

The variety of wildlife products used in Asia is extensive, and include many species that have not been designated as endangered or threatened. Local wildlife markets feature snakes, spiders, turtles, scorpions, squirrels and birds, and some offer endangered species products as well. In addition to high profile commodities like ivory, rhino horn and tiger skin, less well-known animals such as the pangolin and the slow loris may be sold. Many are transported alive to destination markets, but when trafficked, many die in transit.

A key source of demand is the catering industry. The China Wildlife Conservation Association conducted an opinion poll in 16 Chinese cities18 in 2007 on the consumption of wild animals as food. According to the survey, 88 wild animals were identified as species which might be consumed as food. This was 26 more than indicated in a comparable poll in 1999. 

The number of grocery stores and supermarkets selling wild animals and products also increased by 22.8% during this period. A survey of 969 people in six Chinese cities19 found that 44% of respondents claimed to have consumed wildlife in the past year, mostly as food – data from 2010. People with higher incomes and education levels were significantly more likely to consume wildlife as food, and 20% of respondents were open to eating protected animals, such as pangolin.

There are about 3,200 tigers left in the wild, with around half of these in India.

Timber and wood products in Asia

South-East Asia is also home to some of the world’s few remaining old-growth forests, containing many unique tree species, and the problem of timber trafficking is particularly acute. In order to protect these resources, national bodies have attempted to regulate the timber trade, but it is still possible to make money by skirting these controls, and illicit harvesting remains at unacceptably high levels. Demand for these hardwoods is broad, and consumers around the world may be unwittingly contributing to irreversible environmental damage. By concealing the nature and origin of this wood, organized crime makes this tragedy possible.

The transportation of wild animal parts, when detected, tends to raise questions. In contrast, the transport of large volumes of timber and wood products is a staple of international commerce. As with other ostensibly licit goods, the legality of any particular shipment of timber is based on paperwork. Fraudulent paperwork can be used for a number of purposes. It can transmute a protected hardwood into a more mundane variety. It can render a product originating in a protected area into one from an authorized source. In Asia, much of this paperwork is not forged – it is bought from corrupt officials in timber source countries.

Illegal logging gangs operate throughout the source countries, with varying degrees of assistance from corrupt officials, particularly in the military. Brokers are often based in third countries in the region. Due to the bulk of the product, timber is generally transported by sea or by road, entering through official border crossings. Timber of questionable origin may be “laundered” by being re-exported or processed within the region. Much of this commerce is based on fraudulently acquired paperwork sourced from corrupt officials in South-East Asia, and consequently it has become very difficult to disentangle licit and illicit in this area.

Timber from South-East Asia to the European Union and Asia

Source: Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Papua New Guinea

Vector: Sea, land

Destination – China, Vietnam, Europe

Dimensions

Annual market volume – data from 2010 – perhaps 10 million cubic meters

Annual value at destination – US$ 3.5 bilion

Traffickers:

Groups involved: Brokers in Singapore, Hong Kong, China and Taiwan;

Timber trading firms in China, Indonesia, Vietnam; local military, police officials and business people, rebel groups;

Residence of traffickers: Source, brokering and destination countries

Threat:

Estimated trend: Declining in Indonesia and Myanmar; possibly increasing in the Laos and Papua New Guinea

Potential effects: Deforestation, loss of habitat. Loss of species; climate change, increased rural poverty especially amongst indigenous people, irregular migration, flooding, soil erosion

Likelihood of effects being realized: High